Showing 50 publications by Lei Clifton
Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank.
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024), Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology, 33(6), 812-820
BibTeX
@article{assessingtheval-2024/6,
title={Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank.},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
journal={Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology},
volume={33},
pages={812-820},
year = "2024"
}
Figure 3 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
Supplementary Table S2 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryta-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Table S2 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Supplementary Table S5 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryta-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Table S5 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Supplementary Figure S3 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryfi-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Figure S3 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Supplementary Table S1 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryta-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Table S1 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Supplementary Figure S5 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryfi-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Figure S5 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Supplementary Figure S2 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryfi-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Figure S2 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Supplementary Figure S4 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryfi-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Figure S4 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Data from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
Supplementary Table S7 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryta-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Table S7 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Supplementary Table S9 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryta-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Table S9 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Supplementary Table S3 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryta-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Table S3 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Supplementary Table S9 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryta-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Table S9 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Supplementary Table S7 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryta-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Table S7 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Supplementary Table S6 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryta-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Table S6 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Supplementary Table S3 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryta-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Table S3 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Supplementary Table S2 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryta-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Table S2 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Supplementary Table S8 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryta-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Table S8 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Supplementary Table S5 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryta-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Table S5 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Supplementary Figure S3 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryfi-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Figure S3 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Table 2 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
Supplementary Figure S1 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryfi-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Figure S1 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Figure 2 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
Figure 1 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
Supplementary Figure S5 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryfi-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Figure S5 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Supplementary Figure S2 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryfi-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Figure S2 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Table 1 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
Figure 1 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
Supplementary Figure S4 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryfi-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Figure S4 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Supplementary Table S4 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryta-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Table S4 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Supplementary Table S6 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryta-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Table S6 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Supplementary Table S4 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryta-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Table S4 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Supplementary Table S1 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryta-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Table S1 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Table 1 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
Figure 2 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
Figure 3 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
Table 2 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
Data from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
Supplementary Figure S1 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryfi-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Figure S1 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Supplementary Table S8 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
BibTeX
@misc{supplementaryta-2024/6,
title={Supplementary Table S8 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank},
author={Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al.},
year = "2024"
}
Table 3 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
Table 3 from Assessing the Value of Incorporating a Polygenic Risk Score with Nongenetic Factors for Predicting Breast Cancer Diagnosis in the UK Biobank
Collister JA, Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Cuzick J, Clifton L et al. (2024)
Mitigating machine learning bias between high income and low–middle income countries for enhanced model fairness and generalizability
Yang J, Clifton L, Dung NT, Phong NT, Yen LM et al. (2024), Scientific Reports, 14(1)
BibTeX
@article{mitigatingmachi-2024/6,
title={Mitigating machine learning bias between high income and low–middle income countries for enhanced model fairness and generalizability},
author={Yang J, Clifton L, Dung NT, Phong NT, Yen LM et al.},
journal={Scientific Reports},
volume={14},
number={13318},
publisher={Nature Research},
year = "2024"
}
Sample selection bias in machine learning for healthcare
Chauhan VK, Clifton L, Salaün A, Lu HY, Branson K et al. (2024)
Large Language Models in Healthcare: A Comprehensive Benchmark
Liu A, Zhou H, Hua Y, Rohanian O, Clifton L et al. (2024)
Incorporating polygenic risk into the Leicester Risk Assessment score for 10-year risk prediction of type 2 diabetes.
Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Bešević J, Bragg F, Clifton L et al. (2024), Diabetes & metabolic syndrome, 18(4), 102996
BibTeX
@article{incorporatingpo-2024/3,
title={Incorporating polygenic risk into the Leicester Risk Assessment score for 10-year risk prediction of type 2 diabetes.},
author={Liu X, Littlejohns TJ, Bešević J, Bragg F, Clifton L et al.},
journal={Diabetes & metabolic syndrome},
volume={18},
number={102996},
pages={102996},
publisher={Elsevier},
year = "2024"
}
Decoding 2.3 million ECGs: interpretable deep learning for advancing cardiovascular diagnosis and mortality risk stratification
Lu L, Zhu T, Ribeiro AH, Clifton L, Zhao E et al. (2024), European Heart Journal – Digital Health
BibTeX
@article{decodingmillion-2024/2,
title={Decoding 2.3 million ECGs: interpretable deep learning for advancing cardiovascular diagnosis and mortality risk stratification},
author={Lu L, Zhu T, Ribeiro AH, Clifton L, Zhao E et al.},
journal={European Heart Journal – Digital Health},
publisher={Oxford University Press},
year = "2024"
}
Assessing the importance of primary care diagnoses in the UK Biobank.
Clifton L, Liu X, Collister JA, Littlejohns TJ, Allen N et al. (2024), European Journal of Epidemiology, 1-11
Lightweight transformers for clinical natural language processing
Rohanian O, Nouriborji M, Jauncey H, Kouchaki S, Nooralahzadeh F et al. (2024), Natural Language Engineering